What is science diplomacy and why it matters?
Science diplomacy is a set of practices that cover various dimensions: science for diplomacy (rely on scientific work and cooperation to advance foreign policy), diplomacy for science (use diplomatic tools to support researchers -from assistance by embassies during field work abroad, to VISA facilitation, humanitarian corridors), science in diplomacy (providing evidence for international negotiations) and diplomacy in science (use of diplomatic skills within the scientific communities).
Science diplomacy matters for international relations, the protection of global public goods and the continuously evolving state of world affairs including economic and trade competition, violent conflicts, wars, attacks on human rights as well as on science itself and misinformation.
The documents mentioned above are explicit about including social sciences and humanities in the definition of science, taking a whole science approach. This is not only a welcome acknowledgment of the importance of all domains of research, but also a necessary one for the effectiveness of science diplomacy. At the same time, science diplomacy is a research topic within the SSH domain.
Science diplomacy and the contribution of social sciences and humanities
While successful scientific international cooperation initiatives, including large research infrastructures, have been pointing to the need to pool resources and rely on the shared principles of scientific inquiry, it is also clear that knowledge of the ever changing and diverse contexts matters to identify opportunities and barriers to research cooperation.
The social sciences and humanities (SSH) develop knowledge of such elements and processes, and need to be a strong element in providing evidence for any science diplomacy activity. SSH can help identify how knowledge, interests and values interact in international cooperation. They also provide skills directly relevant to science diplomacy: these include -among others- intercultural communication, languages and their evolution and translation, ethical reflections, foresight methods, economic and demographic analysis, social studies of science, studies of international relations, historical and legal understanding. These aspects should be part of the training of science diplomacy professionals -and the European Union Science Diplomacy Alliance and others are offering some of such training (Training & Capacity Building • science-diplomacy.eu)- and of interdisciplinary collaboration on research and higher education.
Tackling inclusiveness in science diplomacy
It is also essential, as part of any science diplomacy effort, to address the inequalities and asymmetries that shape the development of and access to knowledge, science and technology. The democratic and inclusive dimension of science diplomacy deserves attention. While diplomacy needs to be performed among countries with different political systems, in democratic countries also diplomacy must be based on democratic principles and accountability procedures. Citizen participation and public engagement can strengthen legitimacy and trust, connecting science diplomacy with the broader values of democracy, pluralism, independence, open science. In this regard, the Council Recommendation on Science Diplomacy mentioned above provides for principles to ensure an inclusive, diverse and sound science diplomacy: “(…)The Union’s science diplomacy should be based in particular on (….) the principles and values underpinning international cooperation in research and innovation (…..) - notably academic freedom and freedom of scientific research, scientific excellence, research ethics and integrity, research security, gender equality, equal opportunities for all, diversity and inclusiveness, open science and open data, and evidence-informed policymaking (…).
Security and the difficult balance between openness and restrictions
In addition, it is essential to ensure a balance between research security strategies and the fundamental principle of scientific openness, to protect researchers and research integrity without compromising academic freedom or creating unnecessarily harmful barriers to scientific cooperation (see also Knowledge Security and SSH - EASSH). While there is a strong literature on the functioning of economic sanctions, more analysis is needed to grasp the impacts of scientific sanctions in achieving foreign policy objectives and the role of science diplomacy in this. Also here, SSH can contribute to the risk assessment and the analysis of proportionality in the design of restrictive measures.
When measures are taken to foster or restrict cross-border scientific cooperation during violent conflicts or political repression, there often are cases of alignment as well as misalignment of governmental and non-governmental organisations. For example, boycotts were launched by universities in presence of governmental sanctions (e.g. during apartheid in South Africa and the Russian war of aggression on Ukraine) or in their absence of them (as in the case of Israel during the genocide in Gaza). While universities have a duty to implement legally binding sanctions, their autonomy -one of the pillars of academic freedom – provides them the possibility to take action themselves; such action can be negative (boycotting some institutions not covered by formal sanctions) or positive (e.g. providing safe haven for individual scientists at risk, coming from countries under sanctions while complying with sanctions to institutions). Legal analysis as well as context-aware understanding of the role of specific institutions and individuals in situations of conflict and violence are an important contribution of SSH in informing both governmental and non-governmental policies.
Core challenges to science diplomacy practice
While the above-mentioned, non-binding, Council Recommendations acknowledge the added value of science diplomacy practices, intrinsic cultural differences between the communities involved remain a challenge. Advancing the practice of science diplomacy therefore requires, in many respects, a “change in mindset” of all involved. Science diplomacy must reconcile the open, long-term, data-driven and truth-seeking nature of scientific collaboration with the highly competitive, security-focused demands of nationally (and party)-driven interests shaping foreign policy. These tensions are further exacerbated by the geopolitical environment that underlines the urgent need for science diplomacy, i.e. intensifying geopolitical rivalries, weakening of multilateral organisations by increasingly putting them under financial and political pressure, growing economic competition and the promotion of dual-use technologies with military applications that may prompt additional restrictions to scientific cooperation. At the same time, communication gaps and differences in skills, incentives and institutional cultures between researchers and diplomats may hamper effective cooperation among them and with other important stakeholders. Addressing these and other challenges to the practice of science diplomacy will require greater awareness, appropriate training, practice-oriented networks and sustained research on science diplomacy.
Resources
Last but surely not least, proper resources are needed. Science diplomacy needs a strong scientific basis and this points to the need to ensure that a strong investment in research is fostered. As science is a global public good (when not privatised or weaponised) -and one that is key to safeguard other global public goods such as climate, the oceans or the prevention of pandemics- it is vital that public funding as well as private funding with ‘no strings attached’ is provided. In the context of the European Union, this means a strong budget for next EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (FP10); and this, in turn, involves strengthening SSH expertise to ensure that science diplomacy with its skill set, is able to tackle regional and global challenges in a dynamic, and currently very turbulent, context.
To summarise
Science diplomacy can only realise its full potential if it builds on and includes all fields of science and -in particular- draws on the insights of and methods of the social sciences and humanities as a foundation for mutual understanding and trust-building, and for responsible and impactful science and foreign policy.
About the authors
Angela Liberatore is a Visiting Fellow on Science Diplomacy, European University Institute and a member of the EASSH Board
Angela Schindler-Daniels is a Special Advisor to EASSH, and former Chair of the EU Alliance for Science Diplomacy